From Communication to Confrontation:An Analysis of the Process of Civilization Contact between China and the West from the 17th Century to the 19th Century
Over the long period of three centuries,major state actors and non-state actors of the emerging West European international order and the traditional East Asian Tianxia order have gone through three stages of gradually intensified and layer-layer progressive collision.The 17th century witnessed a period of engagement and probe,in which each side took what it needed.The connection between Eastern and Western civilizations was still full of romanticism,and both sides were trying to find commonalities in each other's cultural characteristics.The 18th century was characterized by communication and confrontation,in which each side persisted in its own views.Whether it was the religious rites controversy between Emperor Kangxi and the Pope of Rome,or the protocol dispute between Emperor Qianlong and the King of Great Britain,they all had confrontation in communication and enhanced communication thereafter.The 19th century stayed as a period of clash and adjustment,in which both side were at daggers drawn.The rise of European colonialism has led to ideological differences in the international order between the East and the West,resulting in conflict of interests.West European world has formed a complex conflict pattern and situation in the fields of ideology interests,and power with the East Asian world.The above-mentioned process can be summarized as"arising from identification","stimulating with profit",and"exhausting with war".As a result,the traditional East Asian Tianxia order serving as the"status quo order"was swallowed up by the emerging West European international order serving as the"rising order".We should fully learn from the lessons,respect the diversity of civilization,cherish the historicity of civilization,pay attention to the modernity of civilization,and strive to build a more peaceful,just,and prosperous new world order.
Global HistoryMutual Learning Among CivilizationsThe Introduction of Chinese Culture in the Western WorldRites ControversyColonialism
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