Aluminum adjuvants(Alum),approved by the US Food and Drug Administration,have been extensively used in vaccines containing recombinant antigens,subunits of pathogens,or toxins for almost a century.While Alums typically elicit strong humoral immune responses,their ability to induce cellular and mucosal immunity is limited.As an alternative,layered double hydroxide(LDH),a widely used antacid,has emerged as a novel class of potent nano-aluminum adjuvants(NanoAlum),demonstrating advantageous physicochemical properties,biocompatibility and adjuvanticity in both humoral and cellular immune responses.In this review,we summarize and compare the advantages and disadvantages of Alum and NanoAlum in these properties and their performance as adjuvants.Moreover,we propose the key features for ideal adjuvants and demonstrate that LDH NanoAlum is a promising candidate by sum-marizing its current progress in immunotherapeutic cancer treatments.Finally,we conclude the review by offering our integrated perspectives about the remaining challenges and future directions for NanoAlum's application in preclinical/clinical settings.
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