Wu Qiuyan(1268-1311)opposed the"generals'seals"to the"dignitaries'seals,"proposing that the latter were usually cast,whereas the former were often engraved.He attributed the emergence of these styles to the"conferment of posts on auspicious days"(zeri fengbai)for the dignitaries'seals,in contrast to"urgency in issuing military orders"(ji yu xingling)for the generals'seals.This thesis has,historically,been very influential,but archaeological discoveries from the Han(206 BCE-220),Jin(266-317)and Southern and Northern Dynasties(317-589)now indicate that the dignitaries'seals were,in fact,rarely cast,with historical documentation,such as the Book of the Former Han,recording them as"engraved seals"(keyin).The style of the seals of government officials and the specimens of sealing-clay from this era do not differ significantly according to the rank of the official.Conferment(fengbai)was also a necessary process for official appointments and often applied to the appointment of military posts,as well as to that of dignitaries.Lastly,"urgency"(ji)was only a minor factor in the performance of the seal-engravers in charge of making the generals'seals;more decisive were the skills and proficiency of the clerks and copyists and of the seal-engravers themselves;indeed,it is possible that seals bestowed on military officials were pre-made."Urgency in issuing military orders,"therefore,did not determine the style of the generals'seals and their traditional definition must be revised.The generals'seals do not appear on specimens of sealing-clay and conform with the characteristics of seals used in funeral rites,indicating that,in reality,funeral practices determined their style.Are-examination of the nature of the generals'seals and their origins will contribute significantly to the history of seal-engraving.
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